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Module 06: Critical Thinking Assignment
Critical Thinking Assignment: Create an Annotated Bibliography
.This Critical Thinking assignment builds on the assignment from Module 4
Create an Annotated Bibliography, writing a two-to-three-paragraph appraisal of each article
from the 10 references you gathered for the Module 4 Critical Thinking Assignment. There
should be a title page and then these sources should be listed according to APA 7th edition
guidelines excluding the reference page. Each individual annotation should be followed by
the corresponding appraisal. Look for relevant literature on a topic of interest to you paying
.attention to the methods of collecting and analyzing data and ethical research practices
This is an opportunity to practice synthesizing the author’s words. Do not use quotes; rather,
put the author’s ideas into your own words. Take as many pages as needed to provide
.summaries for each of your articles
.Please use the website(s) below to help get you started
Cornell University: How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography
Purdue OWL: Annotated Bibliography Sample
Please note: Do not confuse an annotated bibliography with an abstract, summary, or a
book review. They are vastly different. For this assignment, abstracts, summaries, and book
.reviews are not acceptable submissions
.Follow APA and Saudi Electronic University writing standards
.Review the grading rubric to see how you will be graded for this assignment
You are strongly encouraged to submit all assignments to the Originality Check prior to
.submitting them to your instructor for grading
Rubric
CHAPTER 13
Qualitative
Studies
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13.1 Overview
▪ Qualitative research uses in-depth interviews, focus group discussions,
participant observation, and other unstructured or semi-structured methods
to explore attitudes and perceptions, identify themes and patterns, and
formulate new theories
▪ Qualitative research seeks to answer questions like “why?” and “how?” that
numbers-focused quantitative research cannot adequately answer
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▪ Quantitative research uses structured, hypothesis-driven approaches to
gather data that can be statistically analyzed
Figure 13-1
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13.1 Overview (Cont.)
▪ In the health sciences, many qualitative research projects aim to improve health
promotion programs and clinical processes or to provide a foundation for social
change
▪ Other qualitative studies seek to understand how people experience health and
illness as individuals and as members of communities, why they engage in or
do not engage in various health-related behaviors, and how they make healthrelated decisions
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▪ Phenomenon: the central concept being studied during a qualitative research
project
13.2 Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology
▪ The philosophical orientations that guide both quantitative and qualitative
research are rooted in ontology, epistemology, and axiology
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▪ Because qualitative research examines thoughts and beliefs that cannot be
directly measured, researchers using qualitative methods must be aware of the
ways their own thoughts, experiences, biases, and assumptions shape the
design and interpretation of their research studies
13.2 Ontology
▪ Ontology: the study of the nature of reality and truth
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▪ Ontological perspectives extend from realism to relativism
13.2 Ontology (Cont.)
▪ Realism assumes that one reality exists, and it can be understood
– A realist would say that meaning exists in an object independent of the subject
investigating it
– Quantitative research studies seek to make objective determinations about the
world
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– Objectivity: facts that can be evaluated without bias
13.2 Ontology (Cont.)
– Subjectivity: claims and experiences that are interpreted based on an evaluator’s
beliefs, perceptions, and feelings
– A relativist would say that a subject imposes meaning on an object
– Qualitative research designs typically seek to understand subjective aspects of
human existence
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▪ Relativism assumes that there are multiple realities and they cannot be fully
understood
13.2 Epistemology
▪ Epistemology: the study of knowledge
▪ For example, a guiding principle for quantitative studies is empiricism, the
assumption that the senses (such as seeing, hearing, and touching) are the
best way to measure truth about the world
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▪ Ontology explains how a researcher defines reality and truth, while
epistemology explains how a researcher knows what is real and true
13.2 Epistemology (Cont.)
▪ Qualitative research assumes that researchers and study participants are
interdependent, and they create knowledge together as they interactively
explore subjective topics
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▪ Quantitative research assumes that researchers are independent from their
study subjects and that researchers can control for possible biases in order to
make objective measurements
13.2 Axiology
▪ Axiology (or value theory): the study of values
▪ Qualitative researchers assume that a researcher’s values affect the study
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▪ Quantitative researchers usually apply an axiological perspective that assumes
that rigorous procedures can eliminate the impact of values and biases on
study outcomes
Figure 13-2
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13.3 Theoretical Paradigms
▪ Four of the most prominent philosophical assumptions applied to health science
research are positivism, constructivism / interpretivism, critical theory, and
pragmatism
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▪ Because the goal of qualitative research is to understand a complex
phenomenon rather than to predict some observable event, qualitative
researchers must select the theoretical perspectives that will guide their study
design, data analysis, and interpretation
Figure 13-3
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13.3 Positivism
– The word positive denotes definitiveness and certainty
– Studies based on a positivist paradigm generally use empirical methods to test
hypotheses and predict outcomes; they often employ quantitative experimental
designs
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▪ Positivism: a paradigm in which researchers apply a realist perspective that
assumes that reality is knowable and that inquiry should be logical and valuefree
13.3 Positivism (Cont.)
– Post-positivism applies a critical realist perspective to research
– Studies using a post-positivist paradigm often employ quasi-experimental and
mixed methods designs
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▪ Post-positivism: a in which researchers aim to experimentally test theories
about how the world works, but they acknowledge that the unpredictability of
human behavior limits the validity of some empirical methods
13.3 Constructivism / Interpretivism
▪ Interpretivism: a paradigm in which researchers consider the reality in the
social world to be different from reality in the natural world
▪ Interpretivism and constructivism are about understanding how various groups
of people interpret reality
▪ Studies based on constructivism and interpretivism use qualitative study
designs
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▪ Constructivism: a paradigm in which researchers have a relativist perspective
that considers each individual’s reality to be a function of that person’s lived
experiences
13.3 Constructivism / Interpretivism (Cont.)
▪ The epistemological assumption is that researchers and participants must work
together to understand reality
▪ The axiological assumption is that beliefs and values are social constructs
▪ These philosophical stances make constructivism the opposite of positivism
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▪ The ontological assumption of constructivism is that there are many realities,
not just one reality, and realities are created as researchers and participants
interact
13.3 Critical Theory
– The philosophical assumption of critical theory is that participants can actively
construct realities that are shaped by beliefs and values
– Research conducted under a critical theory framework is change-oriented
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▪ Critical theory: a paradigm that considers reality to be dependent on social
and historical constructs and assumes that reality can be uncovered by
identifying and challenging power structures
13.3 Critical Theory (Cont.)
▪ In an action research approach, participants work together to solve a social
problem
– Action research conducted under a transformative paradigm assumes that reality
can be changed when researchers collaborate with participants from marginalized
populations to address a social justice issue
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▪ Studies based on critical theory often use participatory methods that empower
participants and equip them to advocate for change
13.3 Pragmatism
▪ The goal of pragmatic research is to solve problems, so the focus is on the
outcomes of the research project rather than the theories and processes that
guide it
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▪ Pragmatism: a paradigm in which researchers assume that reality is
situational, and it is acceptable to use any and all research tools and
frameworks to try to understand a particular problem so it can be solved
13.3 Pragmatism (Cont.)
▪ The epistemological assumption is that reality can be known and understood
using many different approaches
▪ The axiological assumption is that beliefs and values are part of practical
decisions
▪ Pragmatists often use mixed methods in their study designs
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▪ The ontological assumption of pragmatism is symbolic realism, which treats
individuals’ realities as being real to those individuals, because that orientation
is the most useful and practical
13.3 Pluralism
▪ Researchers using two or more theoretical perspectives must carefully explain
why the theories were selected, how they were implemented, and how the use
of multiple theories informed the insights gained from the study
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▪ Theoretical pluralism occurs when a researcher draws on more than one
theoretical framework to guide the design, analysis, and interpretation of a
research project
13.4 Qualitative Methodologies
▪ Planning for a qualitative study often progresses from the identification of the
underlying ontology and epistemology to the selection of a suitable paradigm
and then the identification of methodology that aligns with the underlying
theoretical perspective
▪ In the health sciences, the most popular qualitative methodologies include
phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case studies
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▪ The methodologic approaches selected for a qualitative research project must
align with the goals of the study and the selected theoretical paradigm
Figure 13-4
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Figure 13-5
Copyright © 2021 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an Ascend Learning Company. www.jblearning.com
13.4 Phenomenology
▪ The researcher uses in-depth interviews to gather data from several people,
then the transcripts of those interviews are examined so that meanings and
themes can be identified and understood from the perspective of the
participants
▪ Bracketing is the process of a researcher intentionally setting aside any
preconceived ideas about reality in order to be open to new meanings that
might be expressed by participants
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▪ Phenomenology seeks to understand how individuals interpret and find
meaning in their own unique life experiences and feelings
13.4 Grounded Theory
▪ Data collection and data analysis occur simultaneously, so that theories can be
developed and refined
▪ Theoretical sampling uses the emerging theory to guide the selection of new
data sources, with data collection continuing until data saturation has been
reached
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▪ Grounded theory is an inductive reasoning process that uses observations to
develop general theories that explain human behavior or other phenomena
13.4 Ethnography
▪ Ethnography is an anthropological approach in which researchers aim to
develop an insider’s view (an emic perspective), rather than an outsider’s view
(an etic perspective), of how members of a particular sociocultural group
understand their world
▪ Ethnographers often use participant observation methods to understand a
group’s collective experiences, values, beliefs, and behaviors
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▪ Ethnography is the systematic study of people and cultures in their natural
environments
13.4 Case Study
– A case study approach may be used when preparing a case report or a case series,
or it may be applied to understanding an event, process, or program
▪ The goal is not to develop generalizable knowledge, but to understand one
event well
▪ Multiple data sources may be used as part of a holistic examination of the case,
including observations, interviews, and reviews of historic documents
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▪ A case study is a qualitative research approach that uses multiple data
sources to examine one person, group, event, or other situation in detail
13.5 Mixed Methods Research
– Some mixed methods projects use a convergent parallel design to collect
quantitative and qualitative data concurrently and then compare the results and
interpret them
– Some studies collect the data sequentially, completing one type of study first and
then designing and implementing the other type of study
– Some qualitative studies are embedded within a quantitative study
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▪ Mixed methods projects use of both quantitative and qualitative methods in
one research study
13.5 Mixed Methods Research (Cont.)
– Exploratory research aims to discover new ideas and develop hypothesis
– Descriptive research seeks to understand key characteristics of a group
– Explanatory research tests hypotheses about causal relationships
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▪ Social science research can often be classified as being exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory
13.5 Mixed Methods Research (Cont.)
▪ A mixed-methods explanatory study might collect quantitative data first, and
then use a qualitative study to assist with interpretation of the results
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▪ A mixed-methods exploratory study might collect qualitative data first, and then
use the insights from that study to design and implement a quantitative study
13.5 Mixed Methods Research (Cont.)
– Some research protocols do not consider the interface of the qualitative and
quantitative results until the very end of the project when the findings are being
interpreted
– Other protocols weave both strands of the study together throughout the research
process from the design stage through data collection, data analysis, and
interpretation
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▪ Integration of the two strands of a mixed methods study may occur at various
times during a research project
CHAPTER 32
Qualitative
Analysis
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32.1 Overview
▪ The naturalistic inquiry approach that is frequently used for qualitative research
studies is a holistic process that might involve several rounds of data collection,
analysis, and interpretation in which the preliminary themes and theories
identified in one round inform the data that are collected in the next round
▪ This cycle might continue until data saturation has been reached and new data
are no longer providing new information
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▪ The goal of qualitative analysis is to understand the ways that people find
meaning in their experiences and to develop themes and theories that explain
phenomena
Figure 32-1
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32.1 Overview (Cont.)
There are three primary modes of reasoning
▪ Induction makes inferences based on observations, and the conclusions are
assumed to be likely
▪ Abduction makes inferences based on limited observations and minor
premises, so the conclusions are assumed to be best guesses that are merely
probable
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▪ Deduction makes logical inferences based on facts or widely-accepted
premises, and the conclusions are assumed to be certain
32.1 Overview (Cont.)
▪ Quantitative research typically uses a theory-driven deductive approach in
which data are used to test preformulated hypotheses
▪ Qualitative research typically uses a data-driven inductive process in which
observations are used to identify patterns, generate hypotheses, and formulate
theories
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▪ Deductive reasoning moves from the general (theories or premises) to the
specific (data), while inductive reasoning moves from the specific
(observations) to the general (theories)
32.2 Analytic and Interpretive Frameworks
▪ Analysis based on grounded theory uses inductive approaches to develop
causal theories about a phenomenon
– Constant comparison is a process in which qualitative data are collected and
analyzed simultaneously, rather than waiting to begin analysis after all data have
been gathered
– The categories that emerge from one round of data analysis inform the next round
of data collection
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▪ There are a variety of approaches that can be used for the analysis and
interpretation of qualitative data
32.2 Analytic and Interpretive Frameworks (Cont.)
▪ Content analysis is the process of categorizing textual data
– The analyst begins by systematically coding the text using labels and categories
derived from the text or from existing theories or previous research findings
– The analyst determines which codes occur most often, and then uses that
information to identify the most prominent patterns and themes in the text
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– Texts can be documents, speeches, photographs, videos, or other media
32.2 Analytic and Interpretive Frameworks (Cont.)
– May focus on the content of stories, the structure of stories, the themes of stories,
or the communication goals of stories
– Postmodernism, feminism, or other established philosophies may be applied to help
with the interpretation of the stories
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▪ Narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method that seeks to understand
personal stories
32.2 Analytic and Interpretive Frameworks (Cont.)
▪ Hermeneutics is the study of the interpretation of texts, including the layers of
meaning that are embedded within texts, images, and other artifacts
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▪ Discourse analysis uses the tools of linguistics to evaluate the ordinary use of
written and spoken language—that is, natural language use
32.3 Codes, Categories, and Themes
▪ Projects applying grounded theory typically move through a process of
collecting data, transcribing interviews, assigning initial codes, identifying
categories, identifying themes, and developing a theory
▪ Many projects will include several cycles of data collection, analysis, and
additional data collection and analysis rather than a single linear process of
data collection, analysis, and reporting
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▪ The qualitative analysis process is a flexible one that must align with the
theoretical paradigm and methodologies selected for the project
Figure 32-2
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32.3 Codes
▪ The first level of coding is often called open coding or initial coding
– A code is a label attached to a word or phrase
▪ Each transcript is read and coded using words or short phrases to briefly
summarize the content, such as descriptions of participant characteristics,
emotions, values, evaluations, judgments, processes, or actions
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– Coding (or indexing) is the use of words or short phrases to briefly summarize the
contents, attitudes, processes, or other aspects of each item in a transcript or other
qualitative document
32.3 Codes (Cont.)
▪ Emergent codes (also called emerging themes) are concepts that are
identified during the early stages of qualitative analysis and assigned a label or
code that describes them
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▪ A priori codes (or preset codes) are developed before the start of data
analysis
32.3 Categories
– A category is a group of related codes
– The goal is to identify trends and patterns, look for relationships between codes,
and begin to understand multiple layers of meaning
▪ Pattern coding seeks to group codes into a limited number of categories
▪ Focused coding seeks to identify the most frequent and important categories
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▪ The second level of coding sorts the codes and then groups the codes into
categories
32.3 Themes
▪ A theme is a concept that encompasses one or several categories
▪ Axial coding identifies one core category or core phenomenon and several
related categories that express the major and minor themes of the analysis
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▪ A third level of coding, typically called thematic coding, synthesizes the
categories in order to identify the concepts, meanings, and themes that answer
the study question
32.3 Theories
▪ A theory is a construct that provides a systematic explanation about a
phenomenon
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▪ For some studies, a fourth level of coding generates a new theory about the
phenomenon
32.4 Manual and Electronic Coding
▪ Coding begins with a line-by-line read of a document that has been segmented
into meaningful units that can be coded
▪ A codebook containing a master list of all the codes is generated and revised
with subsequent rounds of coding
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▪ The process of coding and categorizing qualitative data can be completed by
hand or facilitated by computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software
(CAQDAS) programs
32.4 Manual and Electronic Coding (Cont.)
▪ Intercoder reliability is present when multiple coders code the data consistently
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▪ Intracoder reliability is present when one coder applies codes consistently
32.5 Quality Assurance
▪ Transferability: the interpretation of qualitative data is likely to be applicable in
other circumstances (external validity)
▪ Dependability: an indicator of consistency that is demonstrated through
transparency about data collection, analysis, and interpretation methods
▪ Confirmability: an indicator of neutrality that is present when the results of a
study are shown not to be due to researcher bias
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▪ Credibility: the interpretation of the data accurately reflects the studied groups
or texts (internal validity)
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