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1. Support your submission with course material concepts, principles, and theories from the textbook and at least two scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles.2. No Plagiarism , No Matching will be acceptable .clear and presented using APA Style Reference . 3. All answers must be typed using Times New Roman ( Size12 , Double-space)font . 4. No pictures containing text will be acceptable and will be considered plagiarism. 5. No short answer as it’s not acceptable for this assignment 6. the reference must be 8 to 10 7. the answer should be sufficient 8. Please read and follow the instructions in the attached file.I will upload Four files: 1. assignment file, 2. Case Study for part one of assignment, 3. Chapter 11&13 for part 2 of assignment.
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13
Leadership: Power and
Negotiation
ORGANIZATIONAL
MECHANISMS
Organizational
Culture
Organizational
Structure
INDIVIDUAL
MECHANISMS
GROUP
MECHANISMS
Job
Satisfaction
Leadership:
Styles &
Behaviors
Leadership:
Power &
Negotiation
Teams:
Processes &
Communication
Teams:
Characteristics &
Diversity
Stress
INDIVIDUAL
OUTCOMES
Job
Performance
Motivation
Trust, Justice,
& Ethics
Organizational
Commitment
Learning &
Decision Making
INDIVIDUAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Ability
Personality &
Cultural Values
LEARNING GOALS
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions:
13.1 What is leadership, and what role does power play in leadership?
13.2 What are the different types of power that leaders possess, and when can they use those types
most effectively?
13.3 What behaviors do leaders exhibit when trying to influence others, and which of these is most
effective?
13.4 What is organizational politics, and when is political behavior most likely to occur?
13.5 How do leaders use their power and influence to resolve conflicts in the workplace?
13.6 What are the ways in which leaders negotiate in the workplace?
13.7 How do power and influence affect job performance and organizational commitment?
410
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GLAXOSMITHKLINE
I
n 2017, when she took over GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), Emma
Walmsley became the first female CEO of a major pharmaceutical company. Today, she is number 1 on Fortune’s
International 50 most powerful women’s list. GSK, a $38.9
billion British firm, was founded in 2000 when two of the
world’s oldest drug companies merged together. Today, GSK
has three major divisions: pharmaceuticals, vaccines, and
consumer products (such as Excedrin, Flonase, and Tums).
With more than 100,000 employees, leading this organization is no small feat. When Walmsley was initially chosen
as CEO, the reaction was not positive because she was
perceived as a “status quo” selection. Just six weeks into
her tenure, one of GSK’s largest and most vocal shareholders sold all of his stock and publicly called the company “a
health care conglomerate with a suboptimal business strategy.” However, in just two years, Walmsley has won over
many of the company’s critics. One of GSK’s board members
says that Walmsley is “a force of nature” and “the quickest
study I think I’ve ever met.”
After spending 17 years moving up the ranks at L’Oreal,
Walmsley was offered a job as president of GSK’s global
consumer health care division. During Walmsley’s five years
as president, she increased consumer sales 38 percent,
Andy Buchanan/PA Images/Getty Images
from $6.8 billion to $9.4 billion. What really attracted attention, though, was how effectively Walmsley led a major joint
venture with Novartis through to completion. One board
member said, “It is hard to overstate how seamless that integration was.” Although Novartis had a culture that was very
different from GSK, Walmsley was able to use her power
and influence effectively enough to keep most of the highlevel Novartis people engaged and on board. One executive
said, “They spoke so well of her. They felt really respected,
but it was also really clear she was the boss.”
Taking over as CEO was a well-earned, but big step
up. Walmsley said, “I don’t think anyone can fully explain
what it’s like to be a CEO until you’re actually on the job.
The way I define the job is, firstly, in setting strategy for the
company, and then leading the allocation of capital to that
strategy—because until you put the money where you say
your strategy is, it’s not your strategy.”* Walmsley’s push
since becoming CEO has been to redouble efforts into R&D
and refocus on the pharmaceutical side of the business.
One former GSK executive referred to her as a “courageous,
supportive, and demanding leader.”
*Fortune Media IP Limited
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CHAPTER 13
Leadership: Power and Negotiation
L E A DE R S H I P : P OW E R A N D N E GOT I ATI O N
13.1
What is leadership, and what
role does power play in
leadership?
As evidenced by GlaxoSmithKline, leadership in organizations is complicated. It is a mix of factors that has to do with ideas, behaviors, positions, and so forth. Leaders within organizations
can make a huge difference to the success of a company or group. Much of this success depends
on how effectively they use power and influence in achieving their objectives. You could read
the opening example and anoint Emma Walmsley as a great leader and try to simply adopt her
behavioral examples to follow in her footsteps. However, things aren’t quite that simple. As we’ll
discover in this and the next chapter, there are many different types of leaders, many of whom can
excel, given the right circumstances.
There is perhaps no subject that’s written about more in business circles than the topic of
leadership. A quick search on Amazon.com for “leadership” will generate a list of more than
60,000 books! That number doesn’t even count the myriad videos, calendars, audio recordings,
and other items—all designed to help people become better leaders. Given all the interest in this
topic, a natural question becomes, “What exactly is a leader?” We define leadership as the use of
power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement.1 That direction
can affect followers’ interpretation of events, the organization of their work activities, their commitment to key goals, their relationships with other followers, and their access to cooperation and
support from other work units.2 This chapter focuses on how leaders get the power and influence
they use to direct others and the ways in which power and influence are utilized in organizations,
including through negotiation. Chapter 14 will focus on how leaders actually use their power and
influence to help followers achieve their goals.
W H Y AR E S O M E L E A D E R S M O R E P OW E R F U L
T H A N OT H ER S ?
What exactly comes to mind when you think of the term “power”? Does it raise a positive or negative image for you? Certainly it’s easy to think of leaders who have used power for what we would
consider good purposes, but it’s just as easy to think of leaders who have used power for unethical or immoral purposes. For now, try not to focus on how leaders use power but instead on how
they acquire it. Power can be defined as the ability to influence the behavior of others and resist
unwanted influence in return.3 Note that this definition gives us a couple of key points to think
about. First, just because a person has the ability to influence others does not mean they will actually choose to do so. In many organizations, the most powerful employees don’t even realize how
influential they could be! Second, in addition to influencing others, power can be seen as the ability to resist the influence attempts of others.4 This resistance could come in the form of the simple
voicing of a dissenting opinion, the refusal to perform a specific behavior, or the organization of
an opposing group of coworkers.5 Sometimes leaders need to resist the influence of other leaders
or higher-ups to do what’s best for their own unit. Other times leaders need to resist the influence
of their own employees to avoid being a “pushover” when employees try to go their own way.
ACQUIRING POWER
Think about the people you currently work with or have worked with in the past, or think of students who are involved in many of the same activities you are. Do any of those people seem to
have especially high levels of power, meaning that they have the ability to influence your behavior?
What is it that gives them that power? In some cases, their power may come from some formal
position (e.g., supervisor, team leader, teaching assistant, resident advisor). However, sometimes
the most powerful people we know lack any sort of formal authority. It turns out that power in
organizations can come from a number of different sources. Specifically, there are five major
types of power that can be grouped along two dimensions: organizational power and personal
power.6 These types of power are illustrated in Figure 13-1.
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CHAPTER 13
FIGURE 13-1
Leadership: Power and Negotiation
413
Types of Power
Organizational Power
Legitimate Power
Reward Power
Coercive Power
Ability to
Influence
Others
Personal Power
Expert Power
Referent Power
ORGANIZATIONAL POWER The three types of organizational power derive primarily from
a person’s position within the organization. These types of power are considered more formal
in nature.7 Legitimate power derives from a position of authority inside the organization and is
sometimes referred to as “formal authority.” People with legitimate power have some title—some
term on an organizational chart or on their door that says, “Look, I’m supposed to have influence over you.” Those with legitimate power have the understood right to ask others to do things
that are considered within the scope of their authority. When managers ask an employee to stay
late to work on a project, work on one task instead of another, or work faster, they are exercising
legitimate power. The higher up in an organization a person is, the more legitimate power they
generally possess. Fortune magazine provides rankings of the most powerful women in business.
As shown in Table 13-1, all of those women possess legitimate power in that they hold a title that
affords them the ability to influence others.
Legitimate power does have its limits, however. It doesn’t generally give a person the right to
ask employees to do something outside the scope of their jobs or roles within the organization.
For example, if a manager asked an employee to wash their car or mow their lawn, it would likely
be seen as an inappropriate request. As we’ll see later in this chapter, there’s a big difference
between having legitimate power and using it effectively. When used ineffectively, legitimate power
can be a very weak form of power.
The next two forms of organizational power are somewhat intertwined with legitimate power.
Reward power exists when someone has control over the resources or rewards another person
wants. For example, managers generally have control over raises, performance evaluations, awards,
more desirable job assignments, and the resources an employee might require to perform a job
effectively. Those with reward power have the ability to influence others if those being influenced
believe they will get the rewards by behaving in a certain way. Coercive power exists when a person
has control over punishments in an organization. Coercive power operates primarily on the principle of fear. It exists when one person believes that another has the ability to punish him or her
and is willing to use that power. For example, a manager might have the right to fire, demote, suspend, or lower the pay of an employee. Sometimes the limitations of a manager to impose punishments are formally spelled out in an organization. However, in many instances, managers have a
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13.2
What are the different types
of power that leaders possess, and when can they use
those types most effectively?
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CHAPTER 13
Leadership: Power and Negotiation
TABLE 13-1
Fortune’s 15 Most Powerful Women in Business in 2018
NAME
COMPANY
POSITION
AGE
1
Marilyn Hewson
Lockheed Martin
Chairman, CEO, and president
64
2
Mary Barra
General Motors
Chairman and CEO
56
3
Abigail Johnson
Fidelity Investments
Chairman and CEO
56
4
Ginni Rometty
IBM
Chairman, CEO, and president
61
5
Gail Boudreaux
Anthem
President and CEO
56
6
Sheryl Sandberg
Facebook
COO
49
7
Safra Katz
Oracle
Co-CEO
56
8
Phebe Novakovic
General Dynamics
Chairman and CEO
60
9
Ruth Porat
Google, Alphabet
SVP and CFO
60
10
Susan Wojcicki
Google, Alphabet
CEO, YouTube
50
11
Lynn Good
Duke Energy
Chairman, CEO, and president
59
12
Angela Ahrendts
Apple
Senior vice president, Retail and
Online Stores
58
13
Tricia Griffith
Progressive
President and CEO
53
14
Judith McKenna
Walmart Int’l
President and CEO
52
15
Karen Lynch
Aetna
President
55
Source: Bellstrom, K., G. Donnelly, M. Heimer, E. Hinchliffe, A. Jenkins, B. Kowitt, M. Rodriguez, L. Segarra, L. Shen,
J. Vanian, P. Wahba, and J. Wieczner. “Most Powerful Women.” Fortune 178, no. 4 (October 1, 2018): pp. 58–69.
considerable amount of leeway in this regard. Coercive power is generally regarded as a poor form
of power to use regularly, because it tends to result in negative feelings toward those that wield it.
For a great example of someone learning the potential advantage of using organizational power
effectively, see this chapter’s OB on Screen feature.
PERSONAL POWER Of course, the women in Table 13-1 don’t appear on that list just because
they have some formal title that affords them the ability to reward and punish others. There’s
something else about them, as people, that provides them additional capabilities to influence others. Personal forms of power capture that “something else.” Expert power derives from a person’s
expertise, skill, or knowledge on which others depend. When people have a track record of high
performance, the ability to solve problems, or specific knowledge that’s necessary to accomplish
tasks, they’re more likely to be able to influence other people who need that expertise. Consider a
lone programmer who knows how to operate a piece of antiquated software, a machinist who was
recently trained to operate a new piece of equipment, or the only engineer who has experience
working on a specific type of project. All of these individuals will have a degree of expert power
because of what they individually bring to the organization. Angela Ahrendts, SVP at Apple,
appears in Table 13-1 largely because of her expert power. Apple CEO Tim Cook hired Ahrendts,
who was then CEO of the British fashion company Burberry, because he felt that her expertise
in retail could help deliver a vision for the Apple Store. Ahrendts said, “I told him, ‘I’m not a
techie,’ and he said, ‘I think we have 10,000 of those, you are supposed to be here.’”8 There is perhaps no place where expert power comes into play more than in Silicon Valley, where it’s widely
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415
OB On Screen
THE POST
This company has been in my life for longer than most of the people working there have been
alive, so I don’t need the lecture on legacy. And this is no longer my father’s company. It’s no
longer my husband’s company. It’s MY company and anyone who thinks otherwise probably
doesn’t belong on my board.*
With those words, Katherine Graham (Meryl Streep) clarifies her legitimate power to members of
her board, advisors, and newspaper editor in The Post (Dir: Steven Spielberg, 20th Century Fox,
2018). The movie, set in 1971, follows the unauthorized release of the “Pentagon Papers,” a highly
sensitive and classified study commissioned by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara (Bruce
Greenwood) that detailed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Initially, the papers are leaked to
reporters at The New York Times who begin to run a series of stories on the contents of the study
until a court injunction stops them from continuing. In the meantime, The Washington Post’s editor, Bill Bradlee (Tom Hanks) and one of his reporters find the leak and obtain their own copy of
the study, which Bradlee wants to publish.
Moviestore Collection Ltd/Alamy
Following the death of her husband and father, Ms. Graham unexpectedly becomes the sole
owner and publisher of The Washington Post. An interesting part of the movie is watching the
development of Ms. Graham as a leader who starts to recognize the various types of power
she has at her disposal. For much of the movie, she is steamrolled by her advisors, board, and
employees—who all happen to have a lot more journalistic experience than she has (in addition to
being male). The scene in question is the culmination of the movie’s buildup to a decision as to
whether the paper should publish the papers in the face of legal issues, cancellation of the paper’s
upcoming public offering, and even potential jail time for Ms. Graham. Although she attempts to
use multiple forms of power and influence at times throughout the movie—even in this scene—she
is finally willing to utilize her legitimate power to put an exclamation point on her decision.
*Source: The Post.
perceived that the best leaders are those with significant technological experience and expertise.
At Intel, senior advisor and former CEO Andy Grove “fostered a culture in which ‘knowledge
power’ would trump ‘position power.’ Anyone could challenge anyone else’s idea, so long as it
was about the idea and not the person—and so long as you were ready for the demand ‘Prove it.’”9
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CHAPTER 13
Leadership: Power and Negotiation
Referent power exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person.
This desire is generally derived from affection, admiration, or loyalty toward a specific individual.10
Although our focus is on individuals within organizations, there are many examples of political
leaders, celebrities, and sports figures who seem to possess high levels of referent power. Barack
Obama, Angelina Jolie, and Peyton Manning all possess referent power to some degree because
others want to emulate them. The same could be said of leaders in organizations who possess a
good reputation, attractive personal qualities, or a certain level of charisma. Emma Walmsley, as
detailed in our chapter-opening case, clearly wields referent power. Past colleagues refer to her as
having “amazing charisma” and the ability to always speak “with effect.”11
Of course, it’s possible for a person to possess all of the forms of power at the same time. In
fact, the most powerful leaders—like those in Table 13-1—have bases of power that include all five
dimensions. From an employee’s perspective, it’s sometimes difficult to gauge what form of power
is most important. Why, exactly, do you do what your boss asks you to do? Is it because the boss
has the formal right to provide direction, because the boss controls your evaluations, or because
you admire and like the boss? Many times, we don’t know exactly what type of power leaders possess until they attempt to use it. Generally speaking, the personal forms of power are more strongly
related to organizational commitment and job performance than are the organizational forms. If
you think about the authorities for whom you worked the hardest, they probably possessed some
form of expertise and charisma, rather than just an ability to reward and punish. That’s not to say
though that organizational forms of power cannot successfully achieve objectives at times. Some
useful guidelines for wielding each of the forms of power can be found in Table 13-2.
CONTINGENCY FACTORS There are certain situations in organizations that are likely to
increase or decrease the degree to which leaders can use their power to influence others. Most of
these situations revolve around the idea that the more other employees depend on a person, the
more powerful that person becomes. A person can have high levels of expert and referent power,
but if he or she works alone and performs tasks that nobody sees, the ability to influence others
TABLE 13-2
TYPE OF POWER
Guidelines for Using Power
GUIDELINES FOR USE
Legitimate
• Stay within the rights your position holds.
• Communicate your request politely.
• Make sure you describe the purpose of your request.
Reward
• Propose rewards that are attractive.
• Only offer what you can follow through on.
• Be clear on exactly what you are offering a reward for.
Coercive
• Warn people prior to giving punishment.
• Make sure punishment is fair relative to the nature of the lack of
compliance.
• Follow through quickly and without discrimination or bias.
Expert
• Put forth data or other evidence to support your proposal.
• Communicate why the request is important and the justification
for it.
• Be consistent, thoughtful, and honest about requests.
Referent
• Follow through on commitments.
• Do things for others even when not required to do so.
• Support and uphold others when called for.
Source: For a more detailed list of guidelines and discussion, see Yukl, Gary A. Leadership in Organizations, 7th ed. (c) 2010.
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CHAPTER 13
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417
is greatly reduced. That being said, there are four factors that have an effect on the strength of a
person’s ability to use power to influence others.12 These factors are summarized in Table 13-3.
Substitutability is the degree to which people have alternatives in accessing resources. Leaders
that control resources to which no one else has access can use their power to gain greater influence. Discretion is the degree to which managers have the right to make decisions on their own. If
managers are forced to follow organizational policies and rules, their ability to influence others is
reduced. Centrality represents how important a person’s job is and how many people depend on
that person to accomplish their tasks. Leaders who perform critical tasks and interact with others
regularly have a greater ability to use their power to influence others. Visibility is how aware others
are of a leader’s power and position. If everyone knows that a leader has a certain level of power,
the ability to use that power to influence others is likely to be high.
MWH, the Broomfield, Colorado, engineering firm specializing in water projects, with $1 billion in revenue, asked 500 employees in all of its departments where they went when they came up
with a new idea. This would allow MWH to determine who possessed certain types of expertise
and who offered the most help to employees. In a sense, MWH was identifying the individuals in
the organization who were likely to have the most power.13 Companies such as Microsoft, Pfizer,
and Google are increasingly using such networking maps to understand the power structures in
their organizations and who holds the most influence.14
USING INFLUENCE
Up until now, we’ve discussed the types of power leaders possess and when their opportunities
to use that power will grow or diminish. Now we turn to the specific strategies that leaders use to
translate that power into actual influence.
Recall that having power increases our ability to influence behavior. It doesn’t mean that we
will use or exert that power. Influence is the use of an actual behavior that causes behavioral or
attitudinal changes in others.15 There are two important aspects of influence to keep in mind.
First, influence can be seen as directional. It most frequently occurs downward (managers influencing employees) but can also be lateral (peers influencing peers) or upward (employees influencing managers). Second, influence is all relative. The absolute power of the “influencer” and
“influencee” isn’t as important as the disparity between them.16
13.3
What behaviors do leaders
exhibit when trying to influence others, and which of
these is most effective?
INFLUENCE TACTICS Leaders depend on a number of tactics to cause behavioral or attitudinal
changes in others. In fact, there are at least 10 types of tactics that leaders can use to try to influence
others.17 These tactics and their general levels of effectiveness are illustrated in Figure 13-2.18 The four
most effective tactics have been shown to be rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation,
and collaboration. Rational persuasion is the use of logical arguments and hard facts to show the
target that the request is a worthwhile one. Research shows that rational persuasion is most effective
when it helps show that the proposal is important and feasible.19 Rational persuasion is particularly
TABLE 13-3
The Contingencies of Power
CONTINGENCY
LEADER’S ABILITY TO INFLUENCE OTHERS INCREASES WHEN . . .
Substitutability
There are no substitutes for the rewards or resources the
leader controls.
Centrality
The leader’s role is important and interdependent with others in
the organization.
Discretion
The leader has the freedom to make his or her own decisions
without being restrained by organizational rules.
Visibility
Others know about the leader and the resources he or she can
provide.
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CHAPTER 13
Larry Page (left), CEO of
Alphabet (parent company
of Google), is known for
his willingness to allow
employees to use rational
persuasion (data) to
change his mind on an
issue.
FIGURE 13-2
Leadership: Power and Negotiation
important because it’s the only
tactic that is consistently successful in the case of upward
influence.20 At Alphabet, for
example, data is all-important.
CEO Larry Page has been willing to change his mind in the
face of conflicting information.
Douglas Merrill, former Google
CIO, said, “Larry would wander around the engineers and
he would see a product being
developed, and sometimes he
would say, ‘Oh I don’t like that,’
but the engineers would get
Paul Sakuma/Associated Press
some data to back up their idea,
and the amazing thing was that
Larry was fine to be wrong. As long as the data supported them, he was okay with it. And that was
such an incredibly morale-boosting interaction for engineers.”21 An inspirational appeal is a tactic
designed to appeal to the target’s values and ideals, thereby creating an emotional or attitudinal reaction. To use this tactic effectively, leaders must have insight into what kinds of things are important
to the target. Tony Hsieh does his best to use inspirational appeals when talking about the benefits of
his company’s new organizational structure to his employees at Zappos and what he believes it can
bring the company.22 Consultation occurs when the target is allowed to participate in deciding how
to carry out or implement a request. This tactic increases commitment from the target, who now
has a stake in seeing that his or her opinions are valued. A leader uses collaboration by attempting to
make it easier for the target to complete the request. Collaboration could involve the leader helping
complete the task, providing required resources, or removing obstacles that make task completion
difficult.23 Ginni Rometty, CEO of IBM and number 4 in Table 13-1, is known inside and outside the
organization for her collaborative tactics. Rometty and IBM entered into an alliance with its biggest
rival, Apple, to bring IBM services to Apple’s iOS platform. Apple CEO Tim Cook says of Rometty,
“I think she’s wicked smart. She has an incredible ability to partner and can make tough decisions
and do so decisively. And she sees things as they really are.”24
Influence Tactics and Their Effectiveness
Most Effective
Moderately Effective
Least Effective
Rational Persuasion
Ingratiation
Pressure
Consultation
Personal Appeals
Coalitions
Inspirational
Appeals
Apprising
Exchange
Collaboration
Source: Adapted from Lee, S., S. Han, M. Cheong, S. L. Kim, and S. Yun. “How Do I Get My Way? A Meta-Analytic
Review of Research on Influence Tactics.” Leadership Quarterly 28 (2017): pp. 210–228.
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Three other influence tactics are sometimes effective and sometimes not. Ingratiation is the
use of favors, compliments, or friendly behavior to make the target feel better about the influencer. You might more commonly hear this referred to as “sucking up,” especially when used
in an upward influence sense. Ingratiation has been shown to be more effective when used as a
long-term strategy and not nearly as effective when used immediately prior to making an influence attempt.25 Personal appeals occur when the requestor asks for something based on personal
friendship or loyalty. The stronger the friendship, the more successful the attempt is likely to be.
As described in our OB Internationally feature, there are cultural differences when it comes to this
kind of an appeal just as there are with other influence attempts. Finally, apprising occurs when
the requestor clearly explains why performing the request will benefit the target personally. It differs from rational persuasion in that it focuses solely on the benefit to the target as opposed to
simple logic or benefits to the group or organization.
OB Internationally
When Google hired Kai-Fu Lee to be vice president of engineering and president of Google
Greater China, with a more than $10 million compensation package, the company was counting
on his continued ability to use the same skills that allowed him to be a huge success at Microsoft.
What was it that Lee possessed that made him so worthwhile? Lee argues that it was his understanding of guanxi (pronounced gwan-she). In the Chinese culture, guanxi (literally translated
“relationships”) is the ability to influence decisions by creating obligations between parties based
on personal relationships.
Guanxi represents a relationship between two people that involves both sentiment and obligation. Individuals with high levels of guanxi tend to be tied together on the basis of shared institutions such as kinship, places of birth, schools attended, and past working relationships. Although
such shared institutions might “get someone in the door” in the United States, in China, they
become a higher form of obligation. Influence through guanxi just happens—it’s an unspoken
obligation that must be addressed. It is, in a sense, a blend of formal and personal relationships
that exists at a different level than in the United States. There is no such thing as a “business only”
relationship, and the expectation is simply that if you take, you must also give back. Lee (who left
Google) and his guanxi were so great that Google’s Chinese product managers insisted that their
business cards read “Special Assistant to Kai-Fu Lee” and that their desks be placed within 100
feet of his so that they could effectively do business outside the company.
Evidence suggests that companies like Microsoft and Google that possess guanxi have higher
levels of performance. American managers who go to work overseas must be conscious of these
different types of relationships and expectations. In addition to understanding the power of
guanxi, evidence suggests that Chinese managers from different areas (e.g., Hong Kong, Taiwan,
mainland China) have different beliefs when it comes to which influence tactics are the most
effective. There is also recent evidence that the norms around guanxi in China are changing with
time. If anything, it goes to show that managers need to be acutely aware of both general and more
specific cultural differences when trying to influence others in China.
Sources: S. Levy, In the Plex: How Google Thinks, Works, and Shapes Our Lives (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011);
R. Buderi, “The Talent Magnet,” Fast Company 106 (2006), pp. 80–84; C.C. Chen, Y.R. Chen, and K. Xin, “Guanxi
Practices and Trust in Management: A Procedural Justice Perspective,” Organization Science 15 (2004), pp. 200–9; R.Y.J.
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CHAPTER 13
Leadership: Power and Negotiation
The three tactics that have been shown to be least effective and could result in resistance from
the target are pressure, coalitions, and exchange tactics. Of course, this statement doesn’t mean
that they aren’t used or can’t be effective at times. Pressure is the use of coercive power t
