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Need 2 peer responses. Initial discussion post: After reading chapters 14 ,answer the next question. Discuss the characteristics and requirements that research tools should have on quantitative research to give validity to the study. Give some examples
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Validity in Quantitative Research
Quantitative research entails gathering and analyzing numerical data. This method is appropriate for
recognizing patterns, forecasting, testing associations, and making generalizations for large groups. To
ascertain validity in quantitative studies, researchers must exercise caution when choosing and using
various tools. There are several primary characteristics and requirements that research tools should
have to improve the validity of quantitative studies. These tools should demonstrate validity. This
attribute relates to whether a tool sufficiently covers all it is supposed to measure (Ahmed & Ishtiaq,
2021). This attribute ensures that the research instrument accurately evaluates the variable or construct
it was designed to assess. For instance, if a researcher is examining to investigate the individuals at risk
of getting depression using a questionnaire, this research tool aims to identify specifically such patients.
Hence, in this case, validity indicates whether the questionnaire correctly identifies people experiencing
warning signs of this condition and excludes those who do not. Research tools should demonstrate
standardization. These characteristics and requirements denote that these instruments should be
standardized to reduce the variability due to data gathering or interpretation variances. Lack of
standardization may lead to inaccurate results (Salvador-Oliván et al., 2019). This attribute and
requirement hence reduces the effects of extraneous variables. For example, in healthcare research that
involves measuring the heart rate, using the same type of monitor and applying similar protocols for
assessment ensures consistency. Another essential requirement that must be considered is reliability.
According to Sürücü & Maslakci (2020), reliabilityentails the consistency and steadiness of measurement
resources. Based on these characteristics, the results should be similar in all if a particular measurement
is undertaken several times. For instance, if a researcher uses a questionnaire to assess motivation
levels, the questions should be evaluated without random changes. In cases where a tool is not reliable,
it makes it challenging to make meaningful conclusions.
Additionally, a quantitative analysis sample should demonstrate representativeness. This aspect
requires that the sample should represent the larger population under study. Biased or nonrepresentative samples can result in systematic errors during the investigation. For instance, in a study
involving all healthcare workers whereby the sample comprises physicians only, it may not accurately be
representative of the entire workplace population. Such a scenario results in limited external validity. A
representative sample ascertains that results from the research can be generalized to a larger group
from which it is obtained (Rahman et al., 2022). Experts should further ensure they apply the
appropriate statistical method to analyze quantitative data. This attribute ensures that the selected
techniques are suitable, adequate for answering the study questions, and ideal for the data type.
References
Ahmed, I., & Ishtiaq, S. (2021). Reliability and validity: Importance in Medical Research. methods, pp. 12,
13.
Rahman, M. M., Tabash, M. I., Salamzadeh, A., Abduli, S., & Rahaman, M. S. (2022). Sampling techniques
(probability) for quantitative social science researchers: a conceptual guidelines with examples. Seeu
Review, 17(1), 42-51.
Salvador-Oliván, J. A., Marco-Cuenca, G., & Arquero-Avilés, R. (2019). Errors in search strategies used in
systematic reviews and their effects on information retrieval. Journal of the Medical Library Association:
JMLA, 107(2), 210.
Sürücü, L., & Maslakci, A. (2020). Validity and reliability in quantitative research. Business &
Management Studies: An International Journal, 8(3), 2694-2726.
Chapter 14
Data Collection in Quantitative
Research
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question #1
❖Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
❖For unstructured data, researchers use formal data
collection instruments that place constraints on
those collecting data and those providing them.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer to Question #1
❖False
❖For structured data, not unstructured data,
researchers use formal data collection instruments
that place constraints on those collecting data and
those providing them.
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Developing a Data Collection Plan
❖Identifying data needs
❖Selecting types of measures
❖Selecting and developing instruments
❖Pretesting the data collection package
❖Developing data collection forms and procedures
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Early Steps in Data Collection Plan
❖Identification and prioritization of data needs
❖Measures of variables
❖Selection of existing instruments
o Conceptual stability
o Data quality
o Cost
o Population appropriateness
o Reputation
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question #2
❖Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
❖Open-ended questions permit respondents to reply
in narrative fashion.
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Answer to Question #2
❖True
❖Open-ended questions permit respondents to reply
in narrative fashion, whereas closed-ended (or
fixed-alternative) questions offer response
alternatives from which respondents must choose.
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Structured Self-Report Instruments
❖Interview schedules
❖Questionnaires
❖Open-ended questions
❖Closed-ended questions
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Open- and Closed-Ended Questions
❖Open-ended questions allow people to respond in
their own words, in narrative fashion
o
Questionnaires/interviews
❖Closed-ended answers may range from a simple yes
or no to complex expressions of opinion or behavior
o
Dichotomous
o
Multiple choice
o
Rank order
o
Forced choice
o
Rating
o
Checklists
o
Visual analog scales
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Question #3
❖Which type of closed-ended questions have several
questions with the same response format?
A. Forced choice
B. Rating
C. Checklist
D. Visual analog scale
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer to Question #3
❖C
❖Forced-choice questions require respondents to
choose between two competing positions; rating
questions ask respondents to make judgments along
a bipolar dimension; checklists have several
questions with the same response format; and
visual analog scales (VASs) are continually used to
measure subjective experiences.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Composite Scales and Other Structured
Self-Reports
❖Likert scale
o Summated rating scale
o Series of statements about a phenomenon
o Indicate degree of agreement or disagreement
o Total score is computed by summing item
scores, each of which is scored for the intensity
and direction of favorability
❖Cognitive and neuropsychological tests
o Intelligence
o Aptitude
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Other Types of Structured Self-Reports:
Semantic Differentials
❖Bipolar rating scales
❖Indicate reactions toward a phenomenon
❖Measure
o Evaluative
o Activity
o Potency
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Other Types of Structured Self-Reports:
Q Sort
❖Sort a set of card statements into piles
❖Specified criteria
❖Measure
o Attitude
o Personality
o Psychological traits
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Other Types of Structured Self-Reports:
Vignettes
❖Brief descriptions of the event
❖Asked to react to events
❖Assess respondents’
o Perceptions
o Hypothetical behaviors
o Decisions
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question #4
❖Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
❖Interviews are less costly and time-consuming than
questionnaires.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer to Question #4
❖False
❖Questionnaires are less costly and time-consuming
than interviews.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Questionnaires Vs. Interviews #1
❖Questionnaires
o Less costly
o Possibility of anonymity
o No risk of interviewer bias
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Questionnaires Vs. Interviews #2
❖Interviews
o Higher response rate
o Wider variety of people
o Clarity
o Depth of questioning
o Less missing information
o More supplementary data
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Designing Structured Self-Reports
❖Response set biases
❖Common responses
o Social desirability
o Extreme response
o Acquiescence
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Methods of Recording Structured
Observations: Checklists
❖Occurrence or frequency
❖Category systems
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Methods of Recording Structured
Observations: Rating Scales
❖Rate phenomena
❖Dimension typically bipolar
❖Made at specific intervals or after observations are
complete
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Sampling for Structured Observation:
Sampling
❖Time sampling involves the specification of the
duration and frequency of observational periods and
intersession intervals.
❖Event sampling selects integral behaviors or
events of a special type for observation.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Evaluation of Structured Observation:
Biases
❖Halo effect
❖Assimilatory biases
❖Errors of leniency
❖Errors of severity
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Biomarkers
❖Selecting
o In vivo
o In vitro
❖Considerations
o Necessary equipment available?
o Difficult to secure permission?
o Will a single measure of outcome be sufficient?
o Will measures be influenced by reactivity?
o Are safety precautions familiar?
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Biomarkers: Evaluation
❖Advantages
o Accurate/precise/objective
o Valid measures of variables
❖Disadvantages
o Cost
o Measuring tools affect variables
o Biomarkers may be damaged
o Varying lab protocols
o Biased norm values
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Physical Performance Tests
❖Patients’ abilities and skills are sometimes measured
with performance tests.
o 6-mile walk test
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Data Extracted From Records
❖Needed
o Trained abstractors
o Abstractors blinded to the study
o Explicated records inclusion and exclusion
criteria
o Defined variables of interest
o Unambiguous guidelines
o Clear-cut rules
o Frequent accuracy checks
o Verification by random sampling
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Implementing a Data Collection Plan
❖Considerations to keep in mind when selecting
research personnel
o Experience
o Congruency
o Appearance
o Personality
o Training
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